Change Management Organisational Change

Question: In todays profoundly unstable, capricious and ever adaptable business condition, associations can just adopt a new strategy to change.Discuss the legitimacy of this announcement. Answer: In todays profoundly unstable, flighty and ever adaptable business condition, associations can just adopt a developing strategy to change. This article will talk about the legitimacy of the given proclamation by covering a few change types, change triggers, contextualization, change models and general conversation on inside organization condition comparable to the change that is occurring, for example, authority, jobs by the executives and compelling usage of progress. Change isn't just a need however a necessity for globalized business universes of 21st century. So as to adapt up to change, change the executives is required. Be that as it may, so as to oversee transform, it gets important to break down the kind of progress (Armenakis et al, 1993). Change can be of different kinds relying on where in an association structure or culture is a change required. Authoritative change as a rule is a reaction to either the inner elements or the outside components (Burkhardt, 1994). Changes that occur inside the earth of an association are comprehensive of basic changes, key changes, individuals and procedure based change. Auxiliary changes are those progressions made for the interior structure of an association that may create from factors that are inside or outer and they do affect the typical working of an association. These progressions are comprehensive of perspectives, for example, chain of importance of association, order change, frameworks of the ex ecutives, work structure and strategies of organization (Armenakis et al, 1993). Key change are comprehensive of rolling out an improvement to the total objectives, dreams, missions, reason, methodology identified with an association. This change totally changes the manner by which organizations are led by an association (Burkhardt, 1994). A model for auxiliary change can be cited here. On the off chance that an association, for example, Catelyn Communications has settled on a choice for converging with another association in a similar industry then the merger will require auxiliary change as exercises, for example, merger of pecking orders, copying offices, taking out divisions and so on. Inner and outer variables are both answerable for setting off a change. The interior association condition has a reference to occasions, factors, individuals, frameworks, structures and conditions inside to an association normally under companys control (Armenakis et al, 1993). The statement of purpose of the organization, the way of life and administration style are additionally factors related commonly with the association inside condition. It is this condition which impacts the exercises, conduct of workers, their convictions and the choice made. Administration style change, the crucial culture of an association by and large extensively sway the development pace of an association. A model can be cited here of Apple Inc, which is the innovative pioneer over the globe. Initiative style change in the organization from Steve Jobs to Tim Cook, has made Apple face huge obstacles (Armenakis et al, 1993). The organization under Steve Jobs had a creative and transformational kind of initia tive experience anyway the difference in this pioneer drove Apple to confront development wastefulness in light of the fact that yet the workers are not familiar with the authority change (Gerstner, 2002). Those components on the opposite out of the control of an association are outer condition related variables making changes be made inside an organization. Rivalry development, changing impression of the clients, dynamic political circumstances and requirement for innovative headway are largely factors present remotely that trigger a change inside. Change setting or contextualization infers to break down the correct setting of progress so as to properly oversee it. In the administration of progress, associations are frequently confronted with a few settings of progress which can either not be right or right when attempting to oversee change. It ought not be overlooked that change the executives is about change from people groups viewpoint and in this way a few people related issues when furnishing change the executives settings are stood up to with. The setting of individuals issues corresponding to change are comprehensive of connecting with, resolve, opposing, weariness, stress, correspondence and preparing (Armenakis et al, 1993). These all are a lot of basic to the universe of progress the board however they don't pass on the change the executives significance in a specific setting which will truly hold an importance for those supporting and executing the required change. The correct setting of progress then again is rate o f profitability, advantage acknowledgment, results, results and association esteem. Contingent on this contextualization of progress, there are different ways by which deliberately change can be overseen, for example, procedure of arranged change, the procedure of new change (Burkhardt, 1994). There are a few change the executives models anyway gave in the 21st century to chiefs and pioneers so as to deal with the procedures of progress with no obstruction. Obstruction is offered for the most part when workers don't have a lot of information on the change procedure neither do they comprehend their job and obligation in this change procedure. By telling the representatives that change is actualized for the government assistance of the considerable number of individuals from the association and by offering help to the workers, change opposition can be managed (Burkhardt, 1994). In any case, change obstruction can make huge harm an association and in this manner understanding why chang e has been opposed is huge. Pioneers here assume a fundamental job since pioneers with their authority style can cause others to comprehend the significance of actualizing the offered change. (Change Model 1: Lewins Model of progress the executives) (Wanberg et al, 2000) The above gave figure clarifies the model of progress the board given by Lewins. As obvious from the model there are 3 phase change forms which are comprehensive of unfreezing, refreezing and change in the middle. Most endeavors of progress fizzle in light of the fact that deficient groundwork for it has been finished. Unfreezing phase of this model causes associations to design and impart the ideal change thusly causing the association to set up their representatives for change (Mossholder, 1993). Building up a desperation sense and building up an alliance are significant and essential strides of this model. A model can be cited here to feature the use of this model done by the previous IBM CEO. The CEO actualized change and effectively changed association in the underlying 1990s (Herold et al, 2008). The association had the option to oversee change simply because they made a need to keep moving as opposed to concealing their annihilation. Alliance improvement is likewise fundamenta l, for instance, Paul Pressler on turning out to be Gap Inc. Chief began a push to change culture with a longing to make a personality sense among different brands of the organization, for example, the Republic of Banana and Gap. Or on the other hand this explanation, division of representatives occurred so as to arrive at all the workers together. The organization started through giving 2000 ranking directors preparing in the highest points of initiative thusly who were instrumental to guarantee in the staying 150,000 representatives collaboration in the organization. By permitting the representatives to take an interest in the change the board plan, change was conceivable and fruitful. Subsequent stage is the change execution step wherein innovative changes are arranged, structures, refined and strategies (Nash, 2005). The methodology on how change execution will be done relies on the change type. Achievement is accomplished anyway by nonstop arrangement of help, making of little successes and dispensing with snags. After usage of the change, the change endeavors fruitful long haul application relies on the range till which change has turns into a significant part of the way of life of the organization. On the off chance that change is fruitful, at that point thinking in a reconsidered way, carrying on and observing will be routinely done (Wanberg et al, 2000). For assessing and fortifying this sort of progress, there are a few exercises that administration can take. Publicizing achievement relies on rolling out the improvement as changeless. Compensating reception of progress is additionally essential here so as to ensure that the change has gotten for all time imbedded in the association profiting by remunerating those individuals who have rolled out this improvement be fruitful. The straightforward activity of giving acknowledgment has the smallest effect and profoundly urges the association workers to continue supporting the change (Kotter, 1996). Graspi ng change constantly is likewise significant as it offers actualizing alter a course in the light of the considerable number of advantages that this change is advertising. Ceaseless change is grasped by just those organizations who are learning associations. Setting up of a powerful circle of input helps in change the executives as well as aides in examining the logical procedure or nature of progress (Kotter, 1995). At the point when associations have the capacity of understanding the change, at that point it is as of now guaranteed for the association that this change execution will cause them to set up progress. Taking everything into account, it very well may be said that associations amidst consistently evolving situations, need to encounter the procedure of progress the executives since change isn't just critical it likewise helps in giving an intense encounter or challenge for organizations that makes the organizations to learn (Biddle et al, 2006). A scholarly association, for example, those clarified in the models in this paper, IBM and Gap Inc. are those associations which follow an arranged change process so as to investigate the setting of progress and actualize to grasp change normally (Hamel, 2000). At the point when change is executed it must be broke down fittingly through models of

Censoring Our Students :: Argumentative, Legal Issues, Social Issues

â€Å"Students don't shed their sacred rights to the right to speak freely of discourse or articulation at the school building gates.† - Justice William Brennan For a long time it has been discussed whether understudies have a similar correction rights as some other individual on the planet. Many would state that they don't. They would state that by removing those state given rights they are shielding the understudies from being presented to negative things. Tragically the main thing that is being practiced by this overprotection is the absence of comprehension of the world they will before long be confronting. â€Å"Why not stand firm as an open organization that communicates and investigates the mind boggling scope of human encounters? For what reason be political and sorry about the way that we don't avoid troublesome, testing, and complex themes? (Durbin)† There isn’t an increasingly fitting proclamation. Why not stand firm? Plan understudies for this present reality. Show them how to endure. By editing out issues or just permitting constrained conversations of prominent themes, understudies are not being presented to fundamental abilities that are significant to this present reality. Accordingly setting them up for disappointment.      The American state funded schools, for a long time, have been confronted with the issue of restriction. Numerous such issues have been cultivated by bunches who question the utilization of instructional materials that don't meet their ethical, strict, political, social, or ethic esteems (Sherrow 38). By blue penciling themes, for example, homosexuality, religion, sex, racial issues, and other no-no subjects it isn't permitting the development and extension of student’s minds.

How to Effectively Resolve Family Conflicts

How to Effectively Resolve Family Conflicts Stress Management Relationship Stress Print Resolve Family Conflicts and Relieve Stress By Elizabeth Scott, MS twitter Elizabeth Scott, MS, is a wellness coach specializing in stress management and quality of life, and the author of 8 Keys to Stress Management. Learn about our editorial policy Elizabeth Scott, MS Updated on January 27, 2020 Purestock / Getty Images More in Stress Management Relationship Stress Effects on Health Management Techniques Situational Stress Job Stress Household Stress When families get together, we hope for fun times characterized by love and bonding, but we often find that family conflicts occur during these times as well. In fact, in most families, there are longstanding patterns of interaction and roles that people traditionally play within these interactions. When adult children get together with family, they often find themselves slipping back into these patterns, something laughingly referred to as revertigo. These interactions can be positive, but when they’re negative, they can bring high amounts of stress to a family gathering. Defining What You Can Control and What You Cant How often have you had an experience where you knew you were going to see your family and could predict in advance what annoying or frustrating interactions you might have with certain family members, and things went exactly as you’d hoped they wouldn’t? Have you ever wished you had a remote control for humans, complete with pause, rewind and mute buttons? While you can’t control the actions of others, you can control your response to their actions, which can alter the whole dynamic and create more positive interactions. In fact, Dr. Kathleen Kelley Reardon, USC Marshall School professor and author of Comebacks at Work: Using Conversation to Master Confrontation, estimates that 75% of how people treat us is under our control because of this. She advocates taking a different approach if you want to experience new, more positive results with these types of conflicts in the future. “Communication is like chess where every move one person makes influences the choices of the other,” says Reardon. “A good rule of thumb is to not say what you would normally say in response to any provocation. If you usually meet a challenge with a challenge, try asking a question instead. If you let someone go on and on and that leads to anger, link something you have to say to his or her topic and then change to another one. If you think you’re being blamed for something, instead of getting your back up, try saying, “There’s some truth to that” or “I hadn’t thought of it that way but I see your point.” In other words, tweak what you normally do. Then you won’t just slip into conflict. Above all, don’t be predictable. When we’re predictable, those who want to argue can maneuver us into doing just that.” The Role of Patterns This solution is based on the observation that many of our conflicts with people we know well are based on repeated patterns that we unwittingly perpetuate. We may try to be proactive about responding in a way that will resolve the conflict each time (though  lets face it, many of us are more focused on “winning” the argument rather than on dissolving or resolving the conflict, and there’s often a difference). This response could actually serve to keep things going the way they have in the past, which may not be what we want. “All families and most friends bring with them emotional baggage from the past,” explains Reardon. “In Comebacks at Work we describe how this leads to URPS (unwanted repetitive episodes) in conversation. Most of us slip into these dysfunctional and stressful patterns without even noticing because we’ve been in them so many times before. “Some of the common URPS involve sibling rivalry issues, patterns with parents that have never gone away, political issues even in families where everyone identifies with the same political party, and who is more right about topics that aren’t really important.” Simple Changes for Better Results According to Reardon, the key to getting out of these URPS situations is to recognize “choice points” in a conversation, or points in the discourse where you can alter the tone and direction that the exchange takes, by altering your own responses. She gives the following scenario as an example: Alan: That’s a stupid idea.Eleanor: What makes you a genius?Alan: I’m not a genius but I know when something is ridiculous.Eleanor: You’re ridiculous. “After Alan said, “That’s a stupid idea,” Eleanor was at a choice point, explains Reardon. “She reacted in the way many people would. But, she could have altered this conversation.” Here’s how that might look: Alan: “That’s a stupid idea.”Eleanor: “At first, I thought so too. But hear me out.” Or Eleanor might have said: “New ideas tend to sound stupid, but you’ll see in a minute why this one isn’t.” “Instead of reacting to Alan with an attack, she chose to bypass that option,” Reardon points out. “Instead, she allowed that he may have a point but he’ll think differently when she finishes speaking. “This is responding rather than reacting,” she says. “It gives the other person a chance to rethink whether he or she wants to argue. It’s a gift of sorts to be accepted or not â€" the other person’s choice point. Most people respond to such generosity in conversation with returned generosity.” What You Can Do Now If youre anticipating conflict the next time you get together with certain people, you may want to think about things ahead of time and identify patterns youve experienced before, think about potential choice points, and consider alternative responses you may choose. Try to come up with a few tactics for each scenario, and think about what would feel right for you. Rather than getting caught up in the usual conflict and hurt feelings, try to imagine what tone youd like the conversation to take, and see if you can lead the interaction in that direction with your own responses at pivotal choice points. You may be surprised at how quickly things can change. Learning better conflict resolution skills, knowing what to avoid in a conflict, and how to cool off when upset can also help immensely.  And when all else fails, extra-strong listening skills have helped de-escalate many a conflict.

Singin Film The Rain - 889 Words

Singin’ in the Rain Review There are many classic films out there, though only a few help mold future films. Dictionary.com states â€Å"classic† means, â€Å"serving as a standard, model, or guide†. Singin’ in the Rain is a movie that is just that. A classic. It was filmed in 1952 by leading man himself Gene Kelly and Stanley Donen at MGM Studios. Singin’ in the Rain is a spoof film about the years when film companies and actors were making the transition from silent films to â€Å"talkies†. The dynamic acting ability of Gene Kelly and Debbie Reynolds with their great musical numbers and slapstick comedy has made Singin’ in the Rain a movie family’s have enjoyed for years. The music and dancing in this film is incredible. Each song in this film came from a list of songs that MGM owned and were written between 1929 and 1939. Originally some of these songs did not have lyrics to go with the music. Arthur Freed is the man who help ed put words to these songs along with the help of Nacio Herb Brown who wrote the music. Iconic songs such as the one the film is named after â€Å"Singin’ in the Rain†, â€Å"Make ‘em laugh†, and even â€Å"Good Morning† are used in commercials and other films and even used as a satire. Gene Kelly was the choreographer for the film, which meant making up routines to each musical number and dancing to them himself. Singin’ in the Rain has great leading actors who put on an exceptional performance. Gene Kelly plays Don Lockwood, Debbie Reynolds plays Kathy Selden, and DonaldShow MoreRelatedFilm Analysis Of Don Lockwoodssingin In The Rain1380 Words   |  6 Pagesyou’ve seen one, you’ve seen them all,† remarks Kathy Selden about movies after first meeting silent film star Don Lockwood in the beginning of Singin’ in the Rain (Singin’ in the Rain 17:38). While Kathy was slightly off base when saying that all mov ies are the same, movies belonging to the same genre often do share certain conventions which author Bernard F. Dick discusses in his book Anatomy of Film and Tim Dirks confirms in his assessment of the genre for the American Movie Classics Company. WhatRead MoreBilly Wilder s The Rain Vs. Sunset Boulevard Essay957 Words   |  4 PagesSingin’ in the Rain vs. Sunset Boulevard At first glance, Singin’ in the Rain, directed by Gene Kelly and Stanley Donen (1952) and Sunset Boulevard, directed by Billy Wilder (1950) don’t have too much in common. One is a musical comedy about an actor’s transition from silent films to talkies and the other is a film noir drama about an unsuccessful screenwriter’s murder. But upon closer inspection, these movies are about a common problem: the struggles of the film industry when talking pictures tookRead MoreThe Art Of Gene Kelly And Stanley Donen Essay1690 Words   |  7 PagesThe iconic work of Gene Kelly and Stanley Donen, the directors of Singin’ in the Rain, has lasted for over 60 years. Produced by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) and released in April of 1952, Singin’ in the Rain showcases the talents of Gene Kelly, Donald O’Connor, and Debbie Reynolds. This musical motion picture provides a comedic interpretation on the transition that occurred in the 1920s when motion pictu res switched from silent films to talking motion pictures. The transition was hard for numerous actorsRead MoreGenre Analysis Essay1377 Words   |  6 PagesThe musical film has always held a special place for me. From my time as a drama student in high school, my eyes have been opened to the amazing world of the musical and especially the musical film. The musical film is a film genre in which the characters sing songs that are integrated into the overall story. Since musicals first began in theaters, musical films usually contain similar elements. These elements often simulate that there is a live audience watching. In a sense, the film viewers becomeRead MoreAnalysis of Singin in the Rain Essay1112 Words   |  5 PagesReleased in 1951, Singin in the Rain was one of the last films to be produced during the profitable golden age of the studio system. It evokes the typical characteristics of the popular MGM Hollywood musical by relying on superstar names and infectious dance n umbers. However, Singin in the Rain incorporates an additional level of parody into its nostalgic plot that focuses on the disruptive shift from silent movies to talkies. The film showcases classical Hollywood musical numbers supplementedRead MoreSelf Reflexive Aspects of Singing in the Rain Essay2215 Words   |  9 PagesSingin’ in the Rain (MGM, 1952) is an American musical comedy directed by Gene Kelly and Stanley Donen. The film comically emulates the transition from the production of silent movies to ‘talkies’ in Hollywood during the 1920s. The narrative follows a successful silent film star named Don Lockwood (Gene Kelly) and his glamorous blonde on screen partner Lina Lamont as they attempt to adapt The Duelling Cavalier a silent film, into a talking film. However, the shrill sound of Lamont’s voice cast seriousRead MoreThe Classical Hollywood Paradigm in Singin in the Rain987 Words   |  4 Pages Not all films which adhere to the classical Hollywood paradigm eschew issues. The film Singin’ in the Rain follows Don Lockwood, a popular silent film actor, as he attempts to maintain his star status during the advent of â€Å"talkies†. Lockwood’s journey manifests fame’s capricious temperament, the studio’s commercial interest, and the influence of outside variables on a film. Singin’ in the Rain uses Lockwood’s struggle with celebrity to expose the importance of public image and self esteem. Read MoreEssay on Analysis of Kubricks A Clockwork Orange 1455 Words   |  6 PagesStanley Kubricks 1971 film production of the Anthony Burgess novel, A Clockwork Orange, is a truly unforgettable film.   It is narrated by one of the most vicious characters ever put on screen, Alex DeLarge.   The promotional poster for the film advertised it as The adventures of a young man whose principle interests are rape, ultra-violence, and Beethoven (Dirks 1).   Needless to say, music plays a very important role in A Clockwork Orange.   The expressive use of music in this film gives the viewer aRead MoreThe Musical Theatre And Film1607 Words   |  7 PagesGreece. The music and dance were included in stage comedies and tragedies during the 5th century BCE. However, the music is disappeared in these eras for a long time, so that they had no real influence on the development of modern musical theatre and film. There is no serious effect of a musical theatre over the society and politi cal. However, it The Pacific Standard said that Musicals have the Power to Change Minds. Although Broadway musicals are often thought of as lightweight entertainment, manyRead More The Musical Essay1823 Words   |  8 PagesHollywood studios from the early thirties to the early fifties. The conventions of the integrated musical were formed in the Astaire--Rogers musicals made at RKO in the thirties and the form peaked at MGM in the forties and early fifties, most notably in films produced by Arthur Freed. Thomas Schatz has provided a useful definition of the integrated musical. `Rather than create a realistic --or at least plausible --world whose inhabitants find reasonable motives for breaking into song (rehearsals

Analysis of Stephen Cranes, Maggie A Girl Of The...

Analysis of Stephen Cranes, Maggie: A Girl of the Streets Today in modern America, it has become almost impossible to avoid the tales of horror that surround us almost anywhere we go. Scandals, murders, theft, corruption, extortion, abuse, prostitution, all common occurrences in this day in age. A hundred years ago however, people did not see the world in quite such an open manner despite the fact that in many ways, similarities were abundant. People’s lives were, in their views, free of all evil and pollution. They assumed they lived peaceful lives and those around them lived the same flawless lives untouched by corruption as well. Many were too blind to see beyond their own homes and into the lives of others who dealt with a†¦show more content†¦His use of dialect throughout the novel is virtually impossible to ignore. The choppy uneducated lines and dialogue shows the obvious knowledge of the way the poor lived and the purpose behind the writing. Crane was able to develop his own dialect which was reflected in his writings. His dialogue is perhaps the best aspect of his writing gained through his experience. Crane used dialect as the basis of his writings (Karlen, 5843). All other techniques fell into place and based themselves around this aspect (Karlen, 5843). Crane’s unique way of expressing the events that are taking place is perhaps one of the most admirable qualities of his writings. â€Å"The girl, Maggie, blossomed in a mud puddle. She grew up to be a most rare and wonderful production of a tenement district, a pretty girl†(Crane, 16). Crane’s choice of wording in this description of a grown Maggie is one of the many examples of Crane’s unique choice of wording in contrasting Maggie, a beautiful girl, to a mud puddle, the tenements, which she’d grown up around. Amo Karlen describes this kind of writing as being one of Crane’s, â€Å"†¦little masterpieces of the most subtle and difficult prose effects—rhythm, assonance, alliteration—and full of premeditated irony or menacing beauty†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (5844). Aside from his contrasting views, the dialogue among Crane’sShow MoreRelatedNaturalism in Stephen Cranes Maggie: a Girl of the Streets1630 Words   |  7 PagesNaturalism in Stephen Crane’s â€Å"Maggie: A Girl of the Streets† â€Å"Maggie: A Girl of the Streets,† is a novella written by Stephen Crane and published in the year 1893. This work was published during the time of the Industrial Revolution, when factories were appearing everywhere. Their workers were often not paid enough to lead a decent life, and suffered from their situation. They were not very civilized and sometimes aggressive in their behavior. Perhaps because of this radical change from a more agriculturalRead Morea dark brown dog Essay example899 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿Alicia Rush Don Godfrey ENGL 1510 â€Å"A Dark Brown Dog† Analysis In Stephen Crane’s short story of â€Å"A Dark Brown Dog†, he writes about a young boy who finds, neglects, and befriends a ragged puppy, with a rope dragging the ground, when they meet. The boy takes fun in abusing the puppy, but when he tires of this he makes his way home. The puppy, even though the boy was not nice, starts to follows the boy home. When arriving home the boy defends the puppy to claiming him as his own. The boy’s fatherRead MoreEssay about History: World War I and Bold Experiments7600 Words   |  31 Pagescities bereft of a working class (e) not enough commercial entertainment was available for the burgeoning population Broward Practice Questions F 125 4. Modern cities offered all the following amenities ExCEPT (a) public transportation (b) street lights (c) dance halls (d) comfortable, modern housing for the working classes (e) skyscrapers 5. Social Darwinists believed that (a) government should create social services to aid the poor (b) human competition is a law of nature and the fittest

Developing Country and Physics Free Essays

Physics – the study of matter, energy and their interactions – is an international enterprise, which plays a key role in the future progress of humankind. The support of physics education and research in all countries is important because: physics is and exciting intellectual adventure that inspires young people and expands the frontiers of our knowledge about nature. Physics is the most basic of the physical sciences. We will write a custom essay sample on Developing Country and Physics or any similar topic only for you Order Now From chemistry and geology through to biology and cosmology, we understand science in terms of the concepts developed in physics. Not only this, but many of the tools on which the advances of science and technology depend are direct product of physics. The interests and concerns of physicists have always formed the basis of future technology. In medicine we use X-rays, radioisotope and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging. In addition, laser, electron microscopes, synchrotron radiation, and electronics all depend on advances made in physics. Where would our modern western economies be without computers?—we could not build the electronics that modern computers rely on without a knowledge of quantum mechanics. Our modern world is much more connected than in previous historical times. These days we travel far, communicate easily and quickly, and conduct business around the world effortlessly. In fact almost no place on earth has been excluded from the modern interconnected world. We are not only connected with physics through modern technology we are connected at a much more basic level through mother nature. The tsunami in Sumatra Indonesia is a prime example. Not only was it catastrophic for the local area the laws of physics saw this tsunami travel across the Indian Ocean killing over 300,000 in Southeast Asia, and traveling through more than 30 other countries resulting in more than 500 deaths. This was the law of physics in action. But as much proof as there is that physics has played an important role in the connectivity of all parts of the planet the world is still a much divided place. In developed countries you see an almost 100% literacy rate and a $30,000 mean capital income, and a life expectancy of 80. While in developing nations you see a literacy rate lower than 50% and a mean capital income that’s around $2000, and a life expectancy of 40. There is much more for physics, the scientific world, and governments to do to create equality with that interactivity. Kofi Anna the UN Secretary General has been quick to point out the ongoing tragedies throughout the developing world that are directly tied to disease, poverty, and the degradation of the environment. He is also quick to point out that the lack of access to physics and other sciences as well as technology has attributed to many of these problems. Sadly the scientific community spends most of it’s time working on solutions for the developed world yet most of the population on earth can be found in nations that are developing. Physics has the capability of playing a major role in finding solutions to many of the problems facing the human race. Of course it does not have all the answers but the science is developed enough to have created nuclear weapons which remain a global threat, then surely it can be used for the betterment of all people around the globe. Of course politics, socio-economic factors, and acceptance by the people all play a role in the development of a nation. But physics, engineering, and other technological and scientific feats can transform a developing nation to a developed nation. Just look at what the role of physics has accomplished in just the past 200 years. Physics can play an important role in developing strategies to combat climate change, in the development of cleaner energies, and in the development of technological advancements. Then why is it that developing nations spend such a small portion of the GDP on research and development in these areas? Is it because the benefits of science and physics specifically are not fully recognized in industrialized and developing nations? Is it that they really do not want to face the idea that our world is in desperate need of change to ensure we do not destroy ourselves? Physics and technology must work together to resolve the need for new technologies that will decrease the damage to our planet, for strategies  to ensure that the people of developing countries have the tools to progress, the need for solutions to deadly diseases that remain a threat, and the need for solutions to the increasing demands we place on our resources before they are depleted. The role of physics in our modern world is more important than in any other time in history. THE IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICS TO SOCIETY Physics generates fundamental knowledge needed for the future technological advances that will continue to drive the economic engines of the world. Physics contributes to the technological infrastructure and provides trained personnel needed to take advantage of scientific advances and discoveries. Physics is an important element in the education of chemists, engineers and computer scientists, as well as practitioners of the other physical and biomedical sciences. Physics extends and enhances our understanding of other disciplines, such as the earth, agricultural, chemical, biological, and environmental sciences, plus astrophysics and cosmology – subjects of substantial importance to all peoples of the world. Physics improves our quality of life by providing the basic understanding necessary for developing new instrumentation and techniques for medical applications, such as computer tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography, ultrasonic imaging, and laser surgery. THE IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICS TO MAN Physics is important to man’s life because it is used in †¢Cooking food †¢Cleaning clothes †¢Watching TV †¢Heating your hose †¢Playing sports †¢Everything else in your life †¢ Physics plays an important role in health †¢ Economic development †¢ Education †¢ Energy and †¢ The environment. Physics has had an increasingly important impact on the average person’s daily life. For example, Physicists played an essential role in the development of: The Transistor-: The basis of all modern electronics, including radio, television, computers, and telecommunications. The Laser And Laser Diodes: Now used widely in CD players, grocerybar code scanners medical treatment, and telecommunications. The Digital Computer–much of the early development (and some of the most recent) have been motivated by basic research. Fiber Optics: Now finding widespread application in high-speed data and voice transmission networks. The Global Positioning System: Uses satellites and precise timing to allow positions to be allocated to within a few feet anywhere on the surface of the earth. The Hologram: Uses on credit card, driver’s licenses, and other documents to prevent fraud. The World Wide Web (W.W.W)–originally designed by physicist for one to be able to access the world. Medical Imaging Techniques: Such as the sonogram, the CAT scan, and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRIs). Medical Treatment Techniques: Using radiation and charged particle accelerators. New Micro-Sensors: For â€Å"smart machines† and â€Å"smart buildings,† faster and smaller computers, computer disks that can store information in a smaller space, improved chemical processing to help the environment and reduce energy use, faster and cheaper telecommunications. THE FOLLOWING ARE THE VARIOUS IMPORTANCES OF PHYSICS TO MAN AND THE SOCIETY. Physics Improves Health; In medical technology, positron emission tomography (PET) Lets neurologists see how energy flows inside the brain to see where problems could be occurring. Physics Connects the World; The telecommunications industry, including the development of the internet, has benefited from physics research in telecommunications from radio waves to fiber optic cable. Physics Improves Technology; The computing industry depends on physics research in semiconductors and magnetism in order to build processors and disk ever smaller and denser. Physics Drives Progress; Physics research benefits the transportation industry in everything from what materials to build cars of to how to build efficient engines to navigating using the global positioning system. Physics Clears the Air; Physics is used in environmental science to both detect problems and to build systems that are better for the environment with technologies such as solar power and plasma physics. Physics Fills the Home; Many consumer goods developed from physics research. CDs are possible because of refinements in laser technology. Many household gadgets have microprocessors such as microwaves and phones. Physics Designs the Future; Research in materials physics has led to many innovations in the substances from which products are made. One now-common material is Teflon ®. Other substances are now used to make many items from sports equipment to earthquake-resistant buildings. PHYSICS LUNCHES NEW BUSINESS; The defense department started the Global Positioning System (GPS), which uses 24 satellites. GPS was possible because of the atomic clock. Now GPS technology has many uses from being in road maps in cars to perceiving shifts in the tectonic plates. PHYSICS IS THE MOST FUNDAMENTAL OF THE SCIENCES; It is concerned with the most basic building blocks of all things – from ants to antennas, from quarks to quasars. The study of physics means trying to find out what the universe is made of, and how these things move and interact with each other. So in one sense, all the other sciences are built on the knowledge gained through the study of physics. PHYSICS IS BEAUTIFUL; Physicists love simplicity. They are constantly striving to find the most fundamental ideas that can be used to describe even the most complex of phenomena. For example Newton found that only a very small number of concepts could be used to describe just about all of the mechanical world – from steam engines to the motion of the planets. Not only is this beautiful, it’s downright amazing! PHYSICS TEACHES YOU TO THINK; This might seem like a strange statement. The study of all subjects teach you to think. But because physics deals with the most basic concepts, the application of such techniques as â€Å"Separation of Variables† and â€Å"The Scientific Method† are never more clear than they are in the study of physics. Once mastered you will find that these methods can be applied to all subjects, including the business world and just coping with everyday life. PHYSICS GIVES YOU A NEW APPRECIATION OF THE WORLD AROUND YOU; You can look a rainbow and say â€Å"Wow, pretty colors!†, or you can marvel at the amazing interactions between photons and electrons that come together in that particular way when light from the sun strikes spherical water droplets in the sky, and that you perceive as a multicolored arc suspended in the air. Now that’s awe! PHYSICS IS FUN; Lastly, studying physics gives you the opportunity of playing with a lot of really cool toys! IN ADDICTION: Many pioneers in molecular biology were trained as physicists e.g. Francis Crick, one of the two discoverers of  DNA.  A large number of astronomers were also trained as physicist.   Without physics, cars wouldn’t have being developed to take us to our various destinations. TV’s, Light will not have been invented.   We would not have known about space,  Computer Games,  How water boils,  Model financial Market,  Shape futuristic buildings and structures. SUMMARY CONCLUSION Physics is a creative subject, The concepts of physics don’t come easily. Someone has to come up with a theory to begin with. This is just as much a creative process as composing music. But where physics, and science in general, differ from the Arts is that no one will accept your theory unless you have some way of testing its validity. Experimental physicists sometimes have to be enormously creative in coming up with methods of testing theories and measuring things in the world around them. For example, how do you tell that there is a planet orbiting a star that is so far away that it appears as nothing more than a spec of light in even the most powerful telescopes? In summary, for all these reasons, physics is an essential part of the educational system and of an advanced society. We therefore urge all governments to seek advice from physicists and other scientists on matters of science policy, and to be supportive of the science of Physics. Man has always been inspired by the wonders of nature.   He has always been curious to know the secrets of nature and remained in search. Although physics play an important role to understand this physical world. In our daily life,we hardly find a device where physics is not involved. Consider pulleys that make it easy to lift a load.Electricity is used not only to get light and heat but also mechanical energy that drive fans and electric motors etc. Consider the means of transportation such as cars and aeroplanes;domestic appliances such as air-conditioners, washing machines and microwave ovens. Physics is important to our daily life because  we use many thing like electricity etc. Our entire existence relies on physics. From energy transference to the gravity keeping us on Earth, we rely on the laws of physics to go by our daily life. In the most general sense, physics is the study of matter, energy, and the interaction between them. It is a very broad field, and is responsible for much of the technology available today. A few examples: †¢An understanding of Newton’s Laws allows people to put satellites into orbit, design safer vehicles and build safe buildings. †¢An understanding of electromagnetism allows people to build electrical circuits and computers. †¢An understanding of the nature of light allows astronomers to determine the composition of stars without ever having to visit them. How to cite Developing Country and Physics, Papers

Jews Milkweed free essay sample

During Hitler`s region, he and the Nazi region changed many lives of innocent people. Milkweed, a historical fiction by Jerry Spinelli, shows how the Holocaust impacted a multitude of people. Orphaned at an early age Misha, the protagonist, adopts the identity of an orphan gypsy a persona created by his friend Uri. Misha adapts that identity would eventually become Misha Milgrom- the Jew. Misha assumes the role as the Milgrom family â€Å"breadwinner†. After thousands of Jews including the Milgroms, are relocated to the ghetto of Warsaw, Misha learns to identify himself with the Jewish struggle, and to be a part of a family. Because of Hitler`s oppression region, Jews like Misha, the street gang of orphans, and the Milgrom family learn to rely on relationships to help boost their chances of survival if not survival of life then survival of humanity and hope. Hitler`s is able to oppress the Jewish population by taking away their individual power, humility, and hope. One of the ways he takes away power is by using propaganda is to convince the non-Jews that Jews are to blame the wrongs in society. Misha sees this happen when he goes to the carousel and finds a horse missing. It has been from the place on the ride. The crowd surrounding the carousel immediately place blame for the missing horse. â€Å"‘Find the dirty Jew! ’ the voices called over and over, and I think one I heard was mine. † (pg. 66). Spinelli is showing how readly people will follow the crowd and join in the demeaning of a person to save their own lives. Even Misha finds himself buying into the propaganda. He has jumped on the bandwagon. After Misha realizes he too is joining in, he sees that someone has been found to blame. â€Å"They found a Jew. Or should I say they found a Jew. Jews are interchangeable. One was as good as another. † (pg. 66). It is clear that Jews have lost their individuality and become the scapegoat. They are now the â€Å"filthy son of Abraham† a worthless group of useless people, thriving people. People who are to be blamed for all the ills of society. Another example, of oppression is when Misha, Uri, and the boys are being rounded up by the jackboots to go to the ghetto. The boys are surprised when shouting voices as they scramble to escape. In an effort to get away, the boys all go in different directions. One of the boys jumped from the loft. He was shot in midair and flopped to the ground like a ragdoll. † (pg. 79). the boys are oppressed; under complete control of the Nazis. They fear being shot too. The Nazis believe that shooting the boy that try to escape is a small price to pay to get all the others under control. As people lose their powers, they need to help one another as it means of survival. Misha is dependent on Uri for basic survival during Hitler`s take over at Poland. Misha is naive, immature, young homeless boy. He is hopeless without the guidance of Uri. Uri has kept Mishap with food, shelter, companionship, and clothing. He treats him like a younger brother. Uri teaches him about the true purpose of the jackboots and news rules in society. â€Å"For some reason, I felt freer to be stupid and silly when he was there than when he was not. † (pg. 80). Mishap is more comfortable with Uri than without him and does not feel safe to be himself without Uri around. He trusts Uri to protect him when he crosses the line. He knows that if he is to act foolish walking the streets alone he would undoubtedly be killed. To help Misha survive the atrocity of the war, Uri has to take drastic measures. By the end of the war, Misha has learned from Uri how to become a protector and provider. At this point of the novel, the reader has begun to see little of Uri. When he does show Uri he is needed and has to do what no friend should have to do to help Misha avoid the train. â€Å"The Jackboot flung me against a wall. I saw his hand go to his holster. I saw the gun come out and point between my eyes. Die piglet! The voice. I looked up. The red hair. The face. Uri! I cried, and the gun went off. (pg. 168). Uri may have shot off Misha`s ear off, but he gave him an opportunity to run toward freedom and away from the ovens. Misha is helping the Milgroms in a desperate time of need. During the Holocaust many families, including the Milgroms, learn to survive the hardships by relying on relationships to help boost their chances of survival. One way the Milgroms use relationships to survive is by using it to sta y positive. There is so much death and destruction in the ghetto that people need hope if they wish to keep going and survive. Misha leans this when Mr. Milgrom tells him and Janina that Hanukkah is a holiday to celebrate the Jewish heritage. â€Å"And so Hanukkah is eight days when we remember that time, and we remember to be happy and proud to be Jews and that we will always survive. This is our time. We celebrate ourselves. We must be happy now. We must never forget how to be happy. Never forget. † (pg. 157). Spinelli is showing to be proud of yourself. It doesn`t matter what race or religion you are. Just be happy and never forget to be happy. If you have a good attitude, you can make other people around you happy. If you feel happy about yourself nothing will bring you down. Being positive about yourself will help people survive in the hardest of times. After Misha learns about deportations from a friend, Uri, Misha warns the Milgrom family in order for them to survive. Mr. Milgrom realizes that he will need to let go of Janina in order for her to survive. â€Å"He stared into my eyes. He gripped my forearm. Take her hand. Keep her with you. Make her go take off your armbands off and run. Run until daylight. Then hide. Run at night. He squeezed my arm so hard I would have thought he was trying to hurt me if I hadn’t known better. Do not bring back food tonight. Do not return. Run. Run. † (pg. 180). It is clear that the Holocaust is tearing up families and people, but this shows the Milgrom`s family has trust in everyone in the family. This shows that Mr. Milgrom trusts Misha to take Janina away from Warsaw. Mr. Milgrom wants Janina to be safe, to be happy, and to be free. He doesn’t want Janina to die like her mother. Misha understands this is hard for Mr. Milgrom to let go of Janina, but it needs to be done in order for her to survive. The oppressive nature of living in a German occupied Poland created conflict for the Jews. In order to survive or at least have some hope of survival, Jews such as the Milgroms, Misha, and the orphans had to form relationship that boosted their chances to live. Misha needed Uri, the Milgroms needed Misha, and the street gang needed each one another. Because life is hard and people are cruel and intolerant, relationships are essential to bring hope and light into the darkness life may throw in your way. Life in the ghetto during the Holocaust is dark as it gets.

10 Facts About the Periodic Table of Elements

10 Facts About the Periodic Table of Elements The periodic table is a chart that arranges the chemical elements in a useful, logical manner. Elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number, lined up so elements that exhibit similar properties are arranged in the same row or column as one another. The periodic table is one of the most useful tools of chemistry and the other sciences. Here are 10 fun facts to boost your knowledge: Although Dmitri Mendeleev is most often cited as the inventor of the modern periodic table, his table was just the first to gain scientific credibility. ​It wasnt the first table that organized the elements according to periodic properties.There are  about  90 elements on the periodic table that occur in nature. All of the other elements are strictly human-made. Some sources state more elements occur naturally because heavy elements may transition between elements as they undergo radioactive decay.Technetium was the first element to be made artificially. It is the lightest element that has only radioactive isotopes (none are stable.)The International Union of Pure Applied Chemistry, IUPAC, revises the periodic table as new data becomes available. At the time of this writing, the most recent version of the periodic table was approved in November 2016.The rows of the periodic table are called periods. An elements period number is the highest unexcited energy level for an ele ctron of that element. Columns of elements help to distinguish groups in the periodic table. Elements within a group share several common properties and often have the same outer electron arrangement.Most of the elements on the periodic table are metals. The alkali metals, alkaline earths, basic metals, transition metals, lanthanides, and actinides all are groups of metals.The present periodic table has room for 118 elements. Elements arent discovered or created in order of atomic number. Scientists are working on creating and verifying elements 119 and 120, which will change the appearance of the table, though they were working on element 120 before element 119. Most likely, element 119 will be positioned directly below francium and element 120 directly below radium. Chemists may create much heavier elements that may be more stable because of special properties of certain combinations of proton and neutron numbers.Although you might expect atoms of an element to get larger as their atomic number increases , this does not always occur because the size of an atom is determined by the diameter of its electron shell. In fact, element atoms usually decrease in size as you move from left to right across a row. The main difference between the modern periodic table and Mendeleevs periodic table is that Mendeleevs table arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic weight, while the modern table orders the elements by increasing atomic number. For the most part, the order of the elements is the same between both tables, though there are exceptions.

Btec Essay Example

Btec Essay Example Btec Essay Btec Essay The purpose of this assignment: In this assignment you will be introduced to the different forms of businesses with a umber of different purposes and forms of ownership. They have a range of different stakeholders within and outside of them who have different points of view can influence what the organization does. Scenario You work within an important functional unit of the Bristol City Council, the Economic Development Unit. The Council is considering developing a Business Park on the outskirts of Bristol and this important unit deals with the planning and analysis of employment trends in the Bristol area, as well as promoting the area as a good place to do business. The aim of the council is to encourage new businesses to locate to the new business park so that Jobs are created and the local economy grows. One of the strategies of the unit is to encourage a wide range of types of organization, from a range of sectors (both public private) to consider relocating here. You are required to investigate some organizations create a well structured report about them, so that the staff of your unit, as well as local councilors, will know about possible new businesses in the area. You are to focus on two contrasting organizations this could mean from the public and private sector or two different types Trot Walt Task 1 In letter sector. Business organizations exist for many different purposes and have a range of aims and objectives. Privately owned businesses usually aim to make a profit for the owner(s); publicly owned organizations work to deliver services and there are many organizations working for a common cause or service rather than a profit. All these businesses employ staff and use other resources and are important to the economy off region. ) Select two contrasting business organizations in your local area that might be interested in relocating to the new business park. B) Describe the purpose ownership of each business. Task 1 addresses the Pl criterion. Deadline for Task Date handed back Task 2 All organizations have groups or individuals who are said to be stakeholders in the business. This nearness that they have an interest in the actions, performance or plans of the business. For example, a decision to move location affects staff, suppliers, neighbors and customers, all of whom are stakeholders. To help staff understand how stakeholders influence business organizations, in the next section of your report you should: Describe the different stakeholders of each of the selected contrasting organizations Task 1 addresses the UP criterion. Task 3 In doing the above task you have mentioned stakeholders and referred to the fact that they tend to look at organizations from different viewpoints. This nearness that they can try to influence decision makers for different reasons. For example, a worker finding out that the business is to move to new premises may protest Ana try to stop tons; a suppler won thanks Nat tons would De netter Tort deliveries would support the decision. Stakeholders have many reasons for expressing their views. In the next section of your report, explain the points of view of different stakeholders seeking to influence the aims and objectives of these two contrasting organizations. What are they trying to achieve from influencing the business? What impact do they have on shaping the aims and objectives? Task 1 addresses the MI criterion. This brief has been verified as being fit for purpose Assessor Signature Date Internal verifier Assessment Grading Criteria To achieve the pass criteria the evidence must show that the learner is able to; Pl Describe the type of business, purpose and ownership of two contrasting organizations UP Describe the different stakeholders who influence the purpose of two contrasting businesses To achieve the merit criteria the evidence must show that the learner is able to; MI explain the points of view of different stakeholders seeking to influence the aims and objectives of two contrasting organizations To achieve the distinction criteria the evidence must show that the learner is able to; n/a

Describe types of feedback and determine the effects of circuit Lab Report

Describe types of feedback and determine the effects of circuit performance when feedback is applied,Describe the circuit conditions and the methods used to achieve sinusoidal oscillation - Lab Report Example The two types of amplifier are the positive and the negative feedback. The two differ in terms of whether the signal is described as being in phase or out of phase with the input signal. The two types of feedback can also be referred to as regenerative or direct feedbacks. Regenerative feedback or negative feedback occurs whenever a signal is said to be 180 degrees out of phase to the input signal (Musrt 89). A widely cited, negative feedback is appropriate since it helps in creating a practical circuit given that it can create rates and gains. It can also be used in making circuits stable, as well as self-creating and it has an output that can characteristically create equilibrium condition. In an op-amp, a negative feedback is used for purposes of creating a corrective mechanism (Musrt 67). Moreover, it limits the amplifier’s input signal hence improving the fidelity of an amplifier. By and large, it increases the frequency response of any given amplifier through preventing the decreasing in the gain of an amplifier. During the application of an amplifier, the feedback signal reduces with the increasing input signal (Musrt 76). On the other hand, in the positive feedback, the voltage or current feedback is often applied for purposes of increasing the input voltage (Musrt 47). When a positive feedback is applied in an inverting signal circuit, a portion of an output signal is fed back to the input. It is worth noting lacking a positive feedback in any circuit causes a slowdown in the detectors of the open loop. Positive feedback can lead to an increase in the amplifier gain. More often than not, feedback is used in electronic circuits for various reasons. First, circuit characteristics can be controlled and made independent of wide variations in most of the active device parameters (Musrt 34). Second, using feedback, it is possible to make circuit characteristics relatively independent of

The importance of Mens Rea in current criminal law Essay

The importance of Mens Rea in current criminal law - Essay Example Murder required a malicious state of mind, whereas larceny required a felonious state of mind. Mens Rea is generally used along with the words general intent, however this creates confusion since general intent is used to describe criminal liability when a defendant does not intend to bring about a particular result. On the other hand specific intent describes a particular state of mind above and beyond what is generally required. [1] To secure a conviction, the prosecution side must prove that the defendant committed the crime while in a certain state of mind. The definition is specified of every crime before a person can be convicted as a prerequisite for Mens Rea. There are three states of mind which constitute the necessary Mens Rea for a criminal offence. These are intention, recklessness and negligence and are described below. [3] Direct intent is the normal situation where the consequences of a person's actions are desired. Oblique intent comes in the situation where the consequence is known by the defendant as virtually certain, although it is not desired for its own sake, and the defendant goes ahead with his actions anyway. The law states that foresight of consequences can only be evidence of intention if the accused knew that those consequences would definitely happen. Therefore just a possibility of a particular occurrence is not sufficient. "A court or jury in determining whether a person has committed an offence, (a) shall not be bound in law to infer that he intended or foresaw a result of his actions by reason only of its being a natural and probable consequence of those actions; but (b) shall decide whether he did intend or foresee that result by reference to all the evidence drawing such inferences from the evidence as appear proper in the circumstances. Consequently, where foresight needs to be established a person is not to be taken as intending the natural and probable consequences of his act simply because they were natural and probable, although a jury may infer that from looking at all the evidence. The test is therefore subjective and a jury is to decide what the defendant's intention was from considering all the evidence." The cases where they were applied are: The relationship between foresight and intention was considered by the House of Lords in: Hyam v DPP [1975] AC 55 R v Moloney [1985] 1 All ER 1025 R v Hancock and Shankland [1986] 2 WLR 257. It is important to note that foresight of consequences is not the same as intention but only evidence of intention: R v Scalley [1995] Crim LR 504. The most recent case in this area is the decision of the House of Lords in: R v Woollin [1998] 4 All ER 103. The law says - To require proof that it was the defendant's purpose to bring about a particular consequence may involve placing a very heavy evidential burden on the prosecution (R v Moloney, 1985). Criminal law normally only requires proof of oblique intent (foresight intent) as opposed to direct intent Recklessness Recklessness is taking an unjustified risk. In most cases, there is clear subjective evidence that the accused predicted but did not desire the particular

Historical People and Events

Historical People and Events Joan of Arc Joan of Arc is a national heroine of France honored and respected by everyone. She was an illiterate peasant girl who rose to the ranks of leading French armies to victory against England until her capture when she was only 19 years old. She was executed as a heretic in a politically motivated trial. Twenty four years later the Catholic Church declared her innocence and she was canonized as a saint in 1920. She was born in a time when France and England were at war. The Armagnacs and the Burgundians were two French factions at war with each other. By 1484 England was occupying Northern France. The English began a siege of Orleans. Her parents were Jacques dArc and Isabelle Rome. Her father was a farmer and a minor village official. She got her first visions at the age of 12 where St. Michael, St. Catherine, and St. Margaret told her to expel the English. She obtained an interview with the royal French court where she predicted about military reverses of the English near Orleans. She was responsible for pursuing an aggressive offensive strategy by the French army in the siege of Orleans. The defeat of English led to the capture of Jargeau, Meung-sur-Loire, Beaugency and annihilated the English army at the battle of Patay. A truce was signed between the two French factions following the arrival of the French army at Reims. The agreement was broken by Duke Philip. A French advance towards Paris was put off after an order to withdraw. Joan was captured on May 1430 following a skirmish with the English. She was put on trial for heresy in a politically motivated trial. She had supported the other side in France. She was executed for heresy. The inquisitors who interviewed her could not find any evidence of heresy and were convinced of her innocent. The priests who had put her on trial were forced and intimidated by the English government to pronounce heresy. Joan of Arc is honored and revered as a heroine throughout her life and beyond. The French military was inspir ed by her use of artillery and frontal tactics in warfare. Legends have survived about her legacy. The best known is that she did not feel pain during her execution. She is also believed to have died peacefully. She rose to prominence from an illiterate peasant girl to an inspiration for the French military. She gave hope to a discredited regime and inspired the French people to fight a popular war of national liberation. Joan of Arc expelled women from the French army and did not believe in feminism. She has been a political symbol ever since her death. The Vichy government, French resistance, liberals, conservatives, etc have all used her for their political purposes. Many people have studied about the religious visions of Joan. Most people believe in the sincerity of her faith. They consider it to be divine inspiration. Documents which detail about her visions are vague and possibly some fabrications have been added. Some researchers have tried to explain her visions in the form of neurological or psychiatric terms. This view has been opposed by many historians on grounds that hallucinations and hearing voices does not necessarily point to mental illness. Further a person with such lifestyle like Joan would have found it hard to maintain if she had a serious disease. The court of King Charles VII was highly skeptical and shrewd with regards to mental illness. His own father suffered from insanity and under him France began a long decline. Her boldness and physical rigor of her military career counters the theory that she suffered from any cognitive impairment. Joan of Arc remains a popular heroine and political symbol in France. She passionately pursued a national war of liberation and inspired the French to regain hope. She was sincere in faith. Her sincerity and legacy remain stronger than ever even after her death more than five hundred years ago. Johannes Gutenberg Gutenberg was a German Printer, and Pioneer in the use of movable type, he was sometimes identified as the first European to print with hand-set type cast and molds. Although he was not the only person working on the printing press, he was considered to be the main part of it. Gutenbergs name does not appear on any of the works attributed to him, but historical records have given evidence that he is indeed the one who printed them. Johannes Gutenberg was born in 1397. He was born into a noble family in the city of Mainz, a mining town, in Southern Germany. His father was Friele Gansfleisch, his mother was Else Wyrich. His early training was as a goldsmith and an inventor. In 1428, he moved to Strasbourg for political reasons. He remained there for over twenty years. It was in Strasbourg that he made his first experiments with movable type. Gutenberg had the idea of modernizing techniques of metalworking, such as casting, punch-cutting, and stamping, for the mass production of books. Gutenberg became more and more intrigued by these subjects, which led to further experiments with movable type. He started to experiment with metal molds, alloys, special presses, and oil based inks. Little did he know that this experimentation, with a little increased work, would remain the main type of printing until the late twentieth century. In 1438 Gutenberg entered into a partnership with Andreas Dritzehn to conduct experiments in printing. Gutenberg taught Dritzehn about what he had learned dealing with movable type. In about 1450 Gutenberg returned to Mainz, where he formed yet another partnership with a German merchant and a money lender by the name of Johann Fust. With the money that he borrowed from Fust, Gutenberg was able to open up a press where he did additional research and experiments with movable type. It was sometime between 1450 and 1456 that Gutenberg set to work, and completed, a forty- two line Bible (it was 42 lines per page). The bible was referred to as th e Gutenberg Bible, also known as the Mazarine Bible, or the 42-lined bible. Today there is only 47 extant copies, the most widely known presently was acquired by the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. Only two other perfect copies of the Gutenberg Bible are known to exist today. The Gutenberg Bible was widely known for its beauty and elegance. A German printer, Peter Schoffer, Fusts son-in-law, and Gutenbergs apprentice helped to print the work of the Bible. Gutenbergs main goal was to mechanically reproduce medieval liturgical manuscripts without taking away their color or design. In 1455 Fust demanded that Gutenberg repay the money that was invested in the business. This dispute resulted in a lawsuit in which Gutenberg abandoned his claims to his invention and gave up his stocks. Even though he had a dispute with Fust, Gutenberg continued his work with printing. During the years following the dispute and lawsuit Gutenberg printed several small but popular items such as calend ars, but in 1458 Gutenberg printed another bible, only this one was the 36 line Bible. Gutenberg began to re-establish his printing press company with the help of a man named Conrad Humery. At around 1460 Gutenberg was able to print the Missale speciale constantiense as well as the Catholicon. Gutenbergs press was made up of characters of equal height, and these characters were printed on hand-made paper. His press involved a mold that had the outlines of letters and other characters stamped into it. Letters of type could be produced quickly by pouring liquid metal into the pre-made molds. These stamped and molded letters were then put together to make pages of printing. Gutenbergs accomplishments with movable type made book production more economically possible, and easier to produce literature quicker. The new innovations in the printing press opened new possibilities for German literature. The printing press allowed an easier exchange of ideas throughout Europe and helped spread the ideas of the Renaissance. As more productions of literature occurred, more different languages were also printed out. Gutenbergs invention brought the printed word to a wider audience, altering history with its big impact on literacy and education. Before books were able to be printed with the printing press people had to believe what they heard from other people. They werent able to rely on what they read from history books or other sources of information. Before the printing press was invented, making books was a long and hard process, and the books that were produced were extremely costly. The printing press provided a practical and inexpensive way to produce literature. It was a particularly valuable invention, and it made a great contribution to the world. With the invention of the printing press reading and writing were no longer restricted to religious things, or to the rich. People soon learned to question the authority of the ruling class, which was also part of the spr ead of the Renaissance. The printing press sparked an enlightenment and widespread access and appreciation for classical art and literature. These new appreciations developed a new passion among people for artistic self expression. Without the printing press, the Renaissance may never have occurred. Queen Elizabeth I Elizabeths Childhood and Youth Elizabeth was born near London on Sept. 7, 1533. Her father was Henry VIII, bluff King Hal. Her mother was Anne Boleyn, the second of Henrys six wives. Henrys first wife, Catherine of Aragon, had only one surviving child, Mary. Henry wanted a male heir, so he asked the pope to annul the marriage. Because the pope refused, Henry broke away from the Roman Catholic church and set himself up as head of the church in England. Then he married Anne. He was disappointed that Annes child also was a girl. Before Elizabeth was 3 years old, he had her mother beheaded. Henry gave Elizabeth a house of her own in the country. He paid little attention to her, and her governess complained that the princess hath neither gown, nor kirtle, nor petticoat. Henry provided excellent tutors, however, and Elizabeth showed a love for learning. One of her tutors, Roger Ascham, wrote: Her perseverance is equal to that of a man, and her memory long keeps what it quickly picks up. Sh e talks French and Italian as well as she does English. When she writes Greek and Latin, nothing is more beautiful than her handwriting. She delights as much in music as she is skillful in it. Henrys third wife, Jane Seymour, gave birth to a son, Edward. Henry died when Edward was 10 years old, and the boy came to the throne as Edward VI. Elizabeth and Edward were both brought up in Henrys new church. Their half sister Mary was brought up a Roman Catholic. When Edward died in 1553, Mary became queen and at once made Catholicism the state religion. Mary suspected Elizabeth of plotting with the Protestants to gain the throne and had her imprisoned for two months in the Tower of London. When Mary died, there were two claimants to the throne. If Elizabeth did not succeed, the next heir was Mary Stuart of Scotland, a Catholic. Mary Stuart was about to be married to the dauphin Francis of France. If she won the throne of England, both Scotland and England would be joined to France. Philip II of Spain, though a Catholic, threw his influence on the side of Elizabeth because he was jealous of Frances power. Later the Spanish ambassador hinted to Elizabeth that she owed her throne to Philip. Elizabeth replied that she owed it to her people. She is very much wedded to her people, the ambassador wrote, and thinks as they do. When Elizabeth became queen in 1558, she rode at once to London from her country home, traveling in a slow procession to give the people a chance to see her. Guns boomed, bells rang, and the people cheered her and scattered flowers in her path. At the beginning of her reign England was in despair. The country had been weakened by war and religious strife, and the treasury was empty. Spain and France were powerful, and both wanted to rule England. The people hoped their young queen would soon marry a strong man who would guide her. But Elizabeth at once took the government into her own hands; and, though she had many suitors and close friendships with several men, she steadfastly refused to marry. The young queen chose as her chief minister Sir William Cecil (Lord Burghley), who was cautious and conservative like herself. For 40 years he was her mainstay in both home and foreign affairs. Her favorite courtier was the charming and handsome Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester. When she died at the age of 69, she was still called the Virgin Queen. By then rich and secure, England was enjoying its greatest literary period. English ships were sailing into all seas, and the island kingdom had begun to establish its position as a world leader. In religious matters Elizabeth steered a middle course between the extreme Protestants and the Catholics. She restored the Protestant service but retained many features of Catholicism, including bishops and archbishops. She hoped this compromise would produce unity in the state; but the Catholics, who formed a majority of her subjects, were not reconciled. From time to time some of them plotted with Spain or France to put Mary Stuart on the throne in place of Elizabeth. France and Spain were rivals, and Elizabeth was usually able to play one off against the other. She even used courtship as part of her diplomatic game. She refused to marry Philip II of Spain but held out hopes to more than one of his royal relatives when France seemed to threaten. Later, when Philip turned against England, Elizabeth encouraged French princes. To cut Scotlands ties with France, she gave secret help to the Scottish Presbyterians. She also aided the Protestant Netherlands when they revolted against Spain. Mary Stuart returned to Scotland in 1561 after the death of her husband, Francis, king of France. In 1568 she was compelled to flee across the English border to ask Elizabeths help. Elizabeth kept her a prisoner for 19 years. Finally Mary was accused of having a part in the so-called Babington plot to assassinate Elizabeth. Parliament demanded her execution. Elizabeth signed the warrant; and Mary Stuart was beheaded in 1587. In the last years of Elizabeths reign, Catholics were cruelly persecuted and many were put to death. Defeat of the Spanish Armada During the first 30 years of Elizabeths reign England was at peace. Commerce revived, and English ships were boldly venturing across the seas to the West Indies. There they came into conflict with Spain and Portugal, which owned and ruled the whole New World and claimed a monopoly of trade. English smugglers broke through the blockade and made huge profits by selling, in the West Indies, blacks they had seized in Africa. John Hawkins, Sir Francis Drake, and other English seamen also waylaid Spanish ships on their way home and seized their gold. Elizabeth aided the English privateers with ships and money and shared in their profits and stolen treasure. Philip II finally decided to put an end to these attacks by invading and conquering England. After years of preparation, Philip assembled a great fleet of his best and largest w arships, called by the Spanish the Armada (that is, fleet). In 1588 the Armada sailed into the English Channel. The English were waiting for them and at once put out to sea. Their ships were of newer design, smaller than the Spanish galleons, but faster and more heavily armed. In a nine-day battle they inflicted terrible losses on the enemy. The ships that escaped ran into bad weather and only a few returned to Spain. English ships then carried the war to Spain. When the struggle endedafter the deaths of both Elizabeth and Philipno Spanish fleet dared to contest Englands command of the seas. Englands Golden Age The most splendid period of English literature, called the Elizabethan Age, began in the later years of Elizabeths reign. Francis Bacon, writer of the Essays, was one of the queens lawyers. Edmund Spenser wrote The Faerie Queene in her honor. Shakespeare acted before her; but at the time of her death he had not yet written most of his great tragedies. Elizabeth enjoyed plays, but there is no evidence that she appreciated Shakespeares genius. Elizabeth was 55 years old when the Spanish Armada was defeated. Her joy in the victory was soon followed by grief, because her great favorite, Leicester, died a few months later. In 1598 her faithful minister Lord Burleigh passed away. In her court appeared young menSir Walter Raleigh, brilliant and adventurous, and the earl of Essex, a handsome young soldier. Essex fell from favor and Elizabeth had him executed for trying to stir up a rebellion against her. She died two years later, in 1603, at the age of 69, and was buried with great magnificence in Westminster Abbey. Mary Stuarts son, James VI of Scotland, was proclaimed James I of England, thus uniting the crowns of the two kingdoms. The things we think of chiefly as marking the reign of Elizabeth are the religious question, the defeat of the Spanish Armada, and the flourishing of literature. Also important, however, were hundreds of laws on shipping, commerce, industry, currency reform, roads, poor relief, and agriculture. These laws shaped the policy of England for more than two centuries after Elizabeths reign had ended. Aztecs The Aztec Indians, who are known for their domination of southern and central Mexico, ruled between the 14th and 16th centuries. Their name is derived from Azatlan, the homeland of the north. The Aztecs also call themselves Mexica and there language came from the Nahuatlan branch of the Uto-Aztecan family. The Aztecs were formed after the Toltec civilization occurred when hundreds of civilians came towards Lake Texcoco. Late families were unfortunate and were forced to go to the swamp lands. In the swamp lands there was only one piece of land to farm on and it was totally surrounded by more marshes. The Aztec families some how converted these disadvantages to a might empire known as they Aztec Empire. People say the empire was partially formed by a deeply believed legend. As the legend went it said that Aztec people would create a empire on in a swampy place where they would see an eagle eating a snake while perched on a cactus which is growing out of a rock in the swamplands. This i s what priests claimed they saw while entering the new land. By the year 1325 their capital city was finished. They called it Tenochtitlan. In the capital city aqueducts (piping) were constructed, bridges were built, and chinapas were made. Chinapas were little islands formed by piled up mud. On these chinapas Aztecs grew corn, beans, chili peppers, squash, tomatoes, and tobacco. Tenochtitlan (the capital city) was covered in giant religious statues in order to pay their respects to the gods. In the Aztec religion numerous gods controlled an Aztecs daily life. Some of these gods include: Uitzilpochtli (the sun god), Coyolxauhqui (the moon goddess), Tlaloc (the rain god), and Quetzalcoatl (the inventor of the calendar and writing). Another part of the Aztec religion was human sacrifices. For their sacrifices the priest would lay the man or woman over a convex (rounded) stone, and then he would take a sharp knife and cut the victims heart out. They did this because they believed that good gods could prevent bad gods from doing evil things and they also believed that good gods got their strength from human blood and hearts so they had sacrifices in order to keep their gods strong. For major rituals warriors were sacrificed, for the warrior this was one of the greatest honors and for minor rituals prisoners were used. In an Aztec marriage the grooms shirt is tied to the brides dress in order to express their bonding and after the wedding incents were burned for 4 days before proceeding with the marriage. In 1519 Hernando Cortes, a Spanish explorer, led over 500 men into Aztec territory to search for gold. Aztecs thought he was a representative for a certain white skinned god so they respected him. It all changed when the Aztecs saw that Hernando was melting down their golden statues and shipping them back to Spain. The Aztecs decided to attack Hernando and his men. The Aztecs were successful and drove the Spanish away. In 1520 the Spanish attacked the Aztecs capit al city and destroyed their civilization. That was the end of the Aztecs mighty empire had built so long ago. Spanish Inquisition The Inquisition was a religious movement to find and give punishment to heretics . The word inquisition comes from the word inquisitio, or inquest. The word inquisitio refers to the legal process that named the tribunals. It involved finding and interrogating suspects of crimes under oath to tell the truth. Some would condemn themselves. This method of finding heretics worked very well with the Waldensians and the Cathars. In France, the Templars were persecuted by the Inquisitors. In the year 392 A.D. the Roman Emperor Thodosius I outlawed every religion that was not Christian or Jewish. After he declared that, heresy became not only a religious offense, but also a civil one. Heretics began revolting quite frequently in the eleven and twelve hundreds, so the Church took over the job of finding and punishing heretics. In 1231, a special court was created by Pope Gregory IV to demand that all heretics become Christians. The Congregation of the Holy Office took control of the Inquisiti on in 1542. The judges for the Inquisition were almost all Dominican and Franciscan friars. The Inquisition took place mostly in Germany, France, Italy, and Spain. It did take place in other countries, but not as commonly. The investigations were in secret and almost all of the inquisitors abused their powers. Most Inquisitors were Dominican monks, appointed by the head of the Inquisition. Inquisitors and judges of the Inquisition could be compared to the prosecutors and judges of todays courts, to use an analogy. The inquisitor-general would appoint tribunals. Tribunals are groups of inquisitors. During an inquisition, two inquisitors, who traveled together, would call out to a town, city, or village for confessions. Only males under age fourteen and females under age twelve would not be considered as heretics. Questions would be asked of those accused in the local language. The answers were written down by scribes in Latin. The accused would never be defended by anyone, because th en the defender would be thought to be a heretic. The accused ones would not even know who had accused them. Judgments were given on Sundays, in a sermon. Punishment could range from death to paying a fine. Usually heretics were killed. The Inquisition in England was strengthened when the Catholic Reformation, also known as the Counter-Reformation was started. It was to prevent more conversion the Protestantism and to clean up the church. The sale of indulgences was no longer permitted. It was completely done away with. Fear of the Inquisition was also used to discourage becoming Protestant and abandoning Catholicism, for fear of being tried as a heretic. In the fifteen hundreds, the Inquisition was used by the Catholic church against Protestants. Also from the Counter-Reformation came the Jesuits, or the Society of Jesus, which was a group of powerful missionaries. During the Spanish Inquisition alone, from 1478 to 1834, thousands of people were tortured and killed. The person resp onsible for the death of over two thousand Spaniards was Tomas de Torquemanda. He was the leader of the Spanish Inquisition for fifteen years, from 1483 to 1498. He created the rules and precedents of inquisitorial procedure. He formed branches of the Inquisition in many major cities. When the Spanish Inquisition got out of hand, the Church tried to stop it but they could not halt it. The Spanish Inquisition ran its reign of terror from 1478 to 1834. It was said by Mark in Mark 4:22 that Jesus said, For there is nothing to be hid, except to be made manifest, nor is anything secret, except to come to light. The death of all those innocents was something that the Church had tried to hide. They would be imprisoned for days, months, even years, after one hearing, some to finally be tortured to death. The prisoners would have moldy food and stale water, along with cockroaches and other vermin, to keep them company in the dark. As mentioned earlier, suspected heretics were interrogated. T he term should be tortured, in innumerable cases. The inquisitors tortured prisoners to coerce them to confess. There were many ways that heretics would be tortured. Many were very gruesome. Torture has been used by many societies, in all times and places, even now. One method of torture was the use of pear-shaped devices that were forced into the mouth, anus, or vagina and then expanded, by way of mechanical devices, to thereby expand the body cavity. This would irreparably damage the tissues, because each pair had points on it. Almost everyone would die after having this done to them. One other way of persuading heretics to confess was Squassation. This was through use of the Strappardo. This was done by tying the victims hands behind their back and lifting them into the air by their wrists, while having heavy weights attached to their ankles or testicles. Then, they would be dropped almost to the ground and jerked to a stop. This would often dislocate the arms and cause much dama ge to the body part of which the weights were attached. People would be mock-crucified also, by being nailed to a door in the manner of crucifixion. The door would then be swung back and forth or slammed shut quickly. Some heretics were given the water torture, which consisted of forcing the person to drink water through a funnel until they died or confessed. Heretics were also be burned to death on stakes. Some were killed by being put in an oven and being roasted. If suspected heretics would not confess to heresy, then they would often be burned at the stake. In 1224, Frederick II made it a law that heretics must die by fire. One of the worst times in the Inquisition was in the sixteen hundreds. During that period, anything bad that happened could be blamed on witches. Neighbors would accuse each other of being witches over soured milk, lice, and any other minor problem that would occur. If a person said that they didnt believe in witches or demons, then they would be accused of b eing a witch or a heretic. Torture has been proven to be an ineffective method of getting the truth out of someone. A person in great pain might admit to anything, even if innocent. One Templar who had been tortured said, Under such torture, I would have confessed to killing God. Guilds Guilds were created in the Middle Ages and were groups of people with a common interest in a certain trade. There were many different types of guilds varying from religious and social guilds to crafts and carpentry guilds. The main purposes of these guilds were to prevent individual businesses from controlling all of the business of a certain trade. This proved profitable for the smaller businesses. Individuals who refused to join the guild of their profession were forced to leave the town. Guilds also had their own specific coat of arms and badges for members. Craft guilds, comprised of bakers, goldsmiths, tailors, weavers, boatmen, and other craft workers, created rules to protect members of the guilds. Perhaps the most important of the above guilds were those of the boatmen, which were in the coastal port cities. The merchants guilds created rules that set a standard on prices of their products. The members could not sell discounted items to people who were not members of the guil d. They also set standards on the quality of their goods and agreed on wages for their workers. To become part of a guild, workers went through an initiation ceremony and other rites. These rites were known as collegia. Being a member of a guild had some advantages. Along with a membership, the workers received assistance from the guild when it was needed. The guild helped members with charity, funeral ceremonies, prayers for the dead, and provided other services for the members in their times of need. The guilds built halls and market places and helped with church and town projects. all of their crafts and creations were of great quality. If a member of the guild made an item of poor quality he was punished with fines. If he continued to make the crafts with the same quality he would be expelled from the guild. The craft workers who became very successful in their trade and who owned their own shops became the masters of the guild. Craft workers who did not fully master their trade , or did not run their own shops were the journeymen. The journeymen worked in the shops of the masters everyday and received pay from them. Young men who were learning certain trades became known as apprentices and received housing and meals from their master. After about two to seven years, an apprentice could become a journeyman. Journeymen who wanted to become masters had to show evidence of great skill. He also had to pass an examination or make a product in his craft. The product would then be judged by the other masters belonging to his guild. If the product was considered a masterpiece, the journeyman would become a master. Because it soon became more and more difficult for people to become masters, journeymen soon created their own associations. They separated from their masters because their needs were not being met and this angered the masters. The masters tried to fight back by securing the passage of laws prohibiting them. They were defeated most of the time by the guil ds, its members and officials in the town. Merchants and craftsmen had great honor in their trade. This caused them to make their products with nothing but the best and because of their quality crafts, they took in great amounts of money. If the lord of the town was in need of money, he would made the merchants and craftsmen feel obligated to donate their money by making them feel guilty and selfish. Many times, merchants were robbed on their journeys and within the towns they sold their items. Sometimes merchants were falsely accused of owing other merchants and people money. If he did not belong to a guild, it was his word against theirs. If he did belong to a guild, the members supported him. Because of the danger on the merchants journey, caravans, or groups of merchants which traveled together, soon developed. Cities developed around areas which contained items or food of value and where it was convenient for merchants to carry to and then sell their items. Guild halls were bui lt as a meeting house for medieval craft and trade guilds to meet. The guild hall in London, known as the Council Hall, is famous for its great hall and crypt. Other countries, such as Germany, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, have excellent examples of Guild halls. The Lord Mayor of Londons banquet is held annually at the Guild hall in London. Because guilds became so popular and large, they became powerful in the government of the towns. When guilds needed permission to do something from their lord, they had to have the lord write his promise down and then it would be locked up safely in a strong chest in their Guild hall. This promise was called a charter. Guilds continued to increase their power by asking the lord for charters and were soon able to run a small portion of the town. They asked for a charter to allow them to appoint men to govern the town rather than the lords bailiff. Usually in return for this allowance, the guild had to pay a fixed rent each year. When they were allowed this, the guild was in charge of most of the town. As if the guilds were not complex and powerful enough, they decided to create associations of guilds, which controlled common foreign markets. Some examples of these associations are the League of the Flemish cities, concerned with the English wool trade. The association of North German cities, known as the Hanseatic League, controlled trades on the Baltic and North Seas. By the 1300s, guilds began to lose their protection and democratic sides. Guild membership began to pass down through the generations from father to son. This made it more difficult for new members to join the guilds. The increase of capitalistic industry was responsi Historical People and Events Historical People and Events Joan of Arc Joan of Arc is a national heroine of France honored and respected by everyone. She was an illiterate peasant girl who rose to the ranks of leading French armies to victory against England until her capture when she was only 19 years old. She was executed as a heretic in a politically motivated trial. Twenty four years later the Catholic Church declared her innocence and she was canonized as a saint in 1920. She was born in a time when France and England were at war. The Armagnacs and the Burgundians were two French factions at war with each other. By 1484 England was occupying Northern France. The English began a siege of Orleans. Her parents were Jacques dArc and Isabelle Rome. Her father was a farmer and a minor village official. She got her first visions at the age of 12 where St. Michael, St. Catherine, and St. Margaret told her to expel the English. She obtained an interview with the royal French court where she predicted about military reverses of the English near Orleans. She was responsible for pursuing an aggressive offensive strategy by the French army in the siege of Orleans. The defeat of English led to the capture of Jargeau, Meung-sur-Loire, Beaugency and annihilated the English army at the battle of Patay. A truce was signed between the two French factions following the arrival of the French army at Reims. The agreement was broken by Duke Philip. A French advance towards Paris was put off after an order to withdraw. Joan was captured on May 1430 following a skirmish with the English. She was put on trial for heresy in a politically motivated trial. She had supported the other side in France. She was executed for heresy. The inquisitors who interviewed her could not find any evidence of heresy and were convinced of her innocent. The priests who had put her on trial were forced and intimidated by the English government to pronounce heresy. Joan of Arc is honored and revered as a heroine throughout her life and beyond. The French military was inspir ed by her use of artillery and frontal tactics in warfare. Legends have survived about her legacy. The best known is that she did not feel pain during her execution. She is also believed to have died peacefully. She rose to prominence from an illiterate peasant girl to an inspiration for the French military. She gave hope to a discredited regime and inspired the French people to fight a popular war of national liberation. Joan of Arc expelled women from the French army and did not believe in feminism. She has been a political symbol ever since her death. The Vichy government, French resistance, liberals, conservatives, etc have all used her for their political purposes. Many people have studied about the religious visions of Joan. Most people believe in the sincerity of her faith. They consider it to be divine inspiration. Documents which detail about her visions are vague and possibly some fabrications have been added. Some researchers have tried to explain her visions in the form of neurological or psychiatric terms. This view has been opposed by many historians on grounds that hallucinations and hearing voices does not necessarily point to mental illness. Further a person with such lifestyle like Joan would have found it hard to maintain if she had a serious disease. The court of King Charles VII was highly skeptical and shrewd with regards to mental illness. His own father suffered from insanity and under him France began a long decline. Her boldness and physical rigor of her military career counters the theory that she suffered from any cognitive impairment. Joan of Arc remains a popular heroine and political symbol in France. She passionately pursued a national war of liberation and inspired the French to regain hope. She was sincere in faith. Her sincerity and legacy remain stronger than ever even after her death more than five hundred years ago. Johannes Gutenberg Gutenberg was a German Printer, and Pioneer in the use of movable type, he was sometimes identified as the first European to print with hand-set type cast and molds. Although he was not the only person working on the printing press, he was considered to be the main part of it. Gutenbergs name does not appear on any of the works attributed to him, but historical records have given evidence that he is indeed the one who printed them. Johannes Gutenberg was born in 1397. He was born into a noble family in the city of Mainz, a mining town, in Southern Germany. His father was Friele Gansfleisch, his mother was Else Wyrich. His early training was as a goldsmith and an inventor. In 1428, he moved to Strasbourg for political reasons. He remained there for over twenty years. It was in Strasbourg that he made his first experiments with movable type. Gutenberg had the idea of modernizing techniques of metalworking, such as casting, punch-cutting, and stamping, for the mass production of books. Gutenberg became more and more intrigued by these subjects, which led to further experiments with movable type. He started to experiment with metal molds, alloys, special presses, and oil based inks. Little did he know that this experimentation, with a little increased work, would remain the main type of printing until the late twentieth century. In 1438 Gutenberg entered into a partnership with Andreas Dritzehn to conduct experiments in printing. Gutenberg taught Dritzehn about what he had learned dealing with movable type. In about 1450 Gutenberg returned to Mainz, where he formed yet another partnership with a German merchant and a money lender by the name of Johann Fust. With the money that he borrowed from Fust, Gutenberg was able to open up a press where he did additional research and experiments with movable type. It was sometime between 1450 and 1456 that Gutenberg set to work, and completed, a forty- two line Bible (it was 42 lines per page). The bible was referred to as th e Gutenberg Bible, also known as the Mazarine Bible, or the 42-lined bible. Today there is only 47 extant copies, the most widely known presently was acquired by the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. Only two other perfect copies of the Gutenberg Bible are known to exist today. The Gutenberg Bible was widely known for its beauty and elegance. A German printer, Peter Schoffer, Fusts son-in-law, and Gutenbergs apprentice helped to print the work of the Bible. Gutenbergs main goal was to mechanically reproduce medieval liturgical manuscripts without taking away their color or design. In 1455 Fust demanded that Gutenberg repay the money that was invested in the business. This dispute resulted in a lawsuit in which Gutenberg abandoned his claims to his invention and gave up his stocks. Even though he had a dispute with Fust, Gutenberg continued his work with printing. During the years following the dispute and lawsuit Gutenberg printed several small but popular items such as calend ars, but in 1458 Gutenberg printed another bible, only this one was the 36 line Bible. Gutenberg began to re-establish his printing press company with the help of a man named Conrad Humery. At around 1460 Gutenberg was able to print the Missale speciale constantiense as well as the Catholicon. Gutenbergs press was made up of characters of equal height, and these characters were printed on hand-made paper. His press involved a mold that had the outlines of letters and other characters stamped into it. Letters of type could be produced quickly by pouring liquid metal into the pre-made molds. These stamped and molded letters were then put together to make pages of printing. Gutenbergs accomplishments with movable type made book production more economically possible, and easier to produce literature quicker. The new innovations in the printing press opened new possibilities for German literature. The printing press allowed an easier exchange of ideas throughout Europe and helped spread the ideas of the Renaissance. As more productions of literature occurred, more different languages were also printed out. Gutenbergs invention brought the printed word to a wider audience, altering history with its big impact on literacy and education. Before books were able to be printed with the printing press people had to believe what they heard from other people. They werent able to rely on what they read from history books or other sources of information. Before the printing press was invented, making books was a long and hard process, and the books that were produced were extremely costly. The printing press provided a practical and inexpensive way to produce literature. It was a particularly valuable invention, and it made a great contribution to the world. With the invention of the printing press reading and writing were no longer restricted to religious things, or to the rich. People soon learned to question the authority of the ruling class, which was also part of the spr ead of the Renaissance. The printing press sparked an enlightenment and widespread access and appreciation for classical art and literature. These new appreciations developed a new passion among people for artistic self expression. Without the printing press, the Renaissance may never have occurred. Queen Elizabeth I Elizabeths Childhood and Youth Elizabeth was born near London on Sept. 7, 1533. Her father was Henry VIII, bluff King Hal. Her mother was Anne Boleyn, the second of Henrys six wives. Henrys first wife, Catherine of Aragon, had only one surviving child, Mary. Henry wanted a male heir, so he asked the pope to annul the marriage. Because the pope refused, Henry broke away from the Roman Catholic church and set himself up as head of the church in England. Then he married Anne. He was disappointed that Annes child also was a girl. Before Elizabeth was 3 years old, he had her mother beheaded. Henry gave Elizabeth a house of her own in the country. He paid little attention to her, and her governess complained that the princess hath neither gown, nor kirtle, nor petticoat. Henry provided excellent tutors, however, and Elizabeth showed a love for learning. One of her tutors, Roger Ascham, wrote: Her perseverance is equal to that of a man, and her memory long keeps what it quickly picks up. Sh e talks French and Italian as well as she does English. When she writes Greek and Latin, nothing is more beautiful than her handwriting. She delights as much in music as she is skillful in it. Henrys third wife, Jane Seymour, gave birth to a son, Edward. Henry died when Edward was 10 years old, and the boy came to the throne as Edward VI. Elizabeth and Edward were both brought up in Henrys new church. Their half sister Mary was brought up a Roman Catholic. When Edward died in 1553, Mary became queen and at once made Catholicism the state religion. Mary suspected Elizabeth of plotting with the Protestants to gain the throne and had her imprisoned for two months in the Tower of London. When Mary died, there were two claimants to the throne. If Elizabeth did not succeed, the next heir was Mary Stuart of Scotland, a Catholic. Mary Stuart was about to be married to the dauphin Francis of France. If she won the throne of England, both Scotland and England would be joined to France. Philip II of Spain, though a Catholic, threw his influence on the side of Elizabeth because he was jealous of Frances power. Later the Spanish ambassador hinted to Elizabeth that she owed her throne to Philip. Elizabeth replied that she owed it to her people. She is very much wedded to her people, the ambassador wrote, and thinks as they do. When Elizabeth became queen in 1558, she rode at once to London from her country home, traveling in a slow procession to give the people a chance to see her. Guns boomed, bells rang, and the people cheered her and scattered flowers in her path. At the beginning of her reign England was in despair. The country had been weakened by war and religious strife, and the treasury was empty. Spain and France were powerful, and both wanted to rule England. The people hoped their young queen would soon marry a strong man who would guide her. But Elizabeth at once took the government into her own hands; and, though she had many suitors and close friendships with several men, she steadfastly refused to marry. The young queen chose as her chief minister Sir William Cecil (Lord Burghley), who was cautious and conservative like herself. For 40 years he was her mainstay in both home and foreign affairs. Her favorite courtier was the charming and handsome Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester. When she died at the age of 69, she was still called the Virgin Queen. By then rich and secure, England was enjoying its greatest literary period. English ships were sailing into all seas, and the island kingdom had begun to establish its position as a world leader. In religious matters Elizabeth steered a middle course between the extreme Protestants and the Catholics. She restored the Protestant service but retained many features of Catholicism, including bishops and archbishops. She hoped this compromise would produce unity in the state; but the Catholics, who formed a majority of her subjects, were not reconciled. From time to time some of them plotted with Spain or France to put Mary Stuart on the throne in place of Elizabeth. France and Spain were rivals, and Elizabeth was usually able to play one off against the other. She even used courtship as part of her diplomatic game. She refused to marry Philip II of Spain but held out hopes to more than one of his royal relatives when France seemed to threaten. Later, when Philip turned against England, Elizabeth encouraged French princes. To cut Scotlands ties with France, she gave secret help to the Scottish Presbyterians. She also aided the Protestant Netherlands when they revolted against Spain. Mary Stuart returned to Scotland in 1561 after the death of her husband, Francis, king of France. In 1568 she was compelled to flee across the English border to ask Elizabeths help. Elizabeth kept her a prisoner for 19 years. Finally Mary was accused of having a part in the so-called Babington plot to assassinate Elizabeth. Parliament demanded her execution. Elizabeth signed the warrant; and Mary Stuart was beheaded in 1587. In the last years of Elizabeths reign, Catholics were cruelly persecuted and many were put to death. Defeat of the Spanish Armada During the first 30 years of Elizabeths reign England was at peace. Commerce revived, and English ships were boldly venturing across the seas to the West Indies. There they came into conflict with Spain and Portugal, which owned and ruled the whole New World and claimed a monopoly of trade. English smugglers broke through the blockade and made huge profits by selling, in the West Indies, blacks they had seized in Africa. John Hawkins, Sir Francis Drake, and other English seamen also waylaid Spanish ships on their way home and seized their gold. Elizabeth aided the English privateers with ships and money and shared in their profits and stolen treasure. Philip II finally decided to put an end to these attacks by invading and conquering England. After years of preparation, Philip assembled a great fleet of his best and largest w arships, called by the Spanish the Armada (that is, fleet). In 1588 the Armada sailed into the English Channel. The English were waiting for them and at once put out to sea. Their ships were of newer design, smaller than the Spanish galleons, but faster and more heavily armed. In a nine-day battle they inflicted terrible losses on the enemy. The ships that escaped ran into bad weather and only a few returned to Spain. English ships then carried the war to Spain. When the struggle endedafter the deaths of both Elizabeth and Philipno Spanish fleet dared to contest Englands command of the seas. Englands Golden Age The most splendid period of English literature, called the Elizabethan Age, began in the later years of Elizabeths reign. Francis Bacon, writer of the Essays, was one of the queens lawyers. Edmund Spenser wrote The Faerie Queene in her honor. Shakespeare acted before her; but at the time of her death he had not yet written most of his great tragedies. Elizabeth enjoyed plays, but there is no evidence that she appreciated Shakespeares genius. Elizabeth was 55 years old when the Spanish Armada was defeated. Her joy in the victory was soon followed by grief, because her great favorite, Leicester, died a few months later. In 1598 her faithful minister Lord Burleigh passed away. In her court appeared young menSir Walter Raleigh, brilliant and adventurous, and the earl of Essex, a handsome young soldier. Essex fell from favor and Elizabeth had him executed for trying to stir up a rebellion against her. She died two years later, in 1603, at the age of 69, and was buried with great magnificence in Westminster Abbey. Mary Stuarts son, James VI of Scotland, was proclaimed James I of England, thus uniting the crowns of the two kingdoms. The things we think of chiefly as marking the reign of Elizabeth are the religious question, the defeat of the Spanish Armada, and the flourishing of literature. Also important, however, were hundreds of laws on shipping, commerce, industry, currency reform, roads, poor relief, and agriculture. These laws shaped the policy of England for more than two centuries after Elizabeths reign had ended. Aztecs The Aztec Indians, who are known for their domination of southern and central Mexico, ruled between the 14th and 16th centuries. Their name is derived from Azatlan, the homeland of the north. The Aztecs also call themselves Mexica and there language came from the Nahuatlan branch of the Uto-Aztecan family. The Aztecs were formed after the Toltec civilization occurred when hundreds of civilians came towards Lake Texcoco. Late families were unfortunate and were forced to go to the swamp lands. In the swamp lands there was only one piece of land to farm on and it was totally surrounded by more marshes. The Aztec families some how converted these disadvantages to a might empire known as they Aztec Empire. People say the empire was partially formed by a deeply believed legend. As the legend went it said that Aztec people would create a empire on in a swampy place where they would see an eagle eating a snake while perched on a cactus which is growing out of a rock in the swamplands. This i s what priests claimed they saw while entering the new land. By the year 1325 their capital city was finished. They called it Tenochtitlan. In the capital city aqueducts (piping) were constructed, bridges were built, and chinapas were made. Chinapas were little islands formed by piled up mud. On these chinapas Aztecs grew corn, beans, chili peppers, squash, tomatoes, and tobacco. Tenochtitlan (the capital city) was covered in giant religious statues in order to pay their respects to the gods. In the Aztec religion numerous gods controlled an Aztecs daily life. Some of these gods include: Uitzilpochtli (the sun god), Coyolxauhqui (the moon goddess), Tlaloc (the rain god), and Quetzalcoatl (the inventor of the calendar and writing). Another part of the Aztec religion was human sacrifices. For their sacrifices the priest would lay the man or woman over a convex (rounded) stone, and then he would take a sharp knife and cut the victims heart out. They did this because they believed that good gods could prevent bad gods from doing evil things and they also believed that good gods got their strength from human blood and hearts so they had sacrifices in order to keep their gods strong. For major rituals warriors were sacrificed, for the warrior this was one of the greatest honors and for minor rituals prisoners were used. In an Aztec marriage the grooms shirt is tied to the brides dress in order to express their bonding and after the wedding incents were burned for 4 days before proceeding with the marriage. In 1519 Hernando Cortes, a Spanish explorer, led over 500 men into Aztec territory to search for gold. Aztecs thought he was a representative for a certain white skinned god so they respected him. It all changed when the Aztecs saw that Hernando was melting down their golden statues and shipping them back to Spain. The Aztecs decided to attack Hernando and his men. The Aztecs were successful and drove the Spanish away. In 1520 the Spanish attacked the Aztecs capit al city and destroyed their civilization. That was the end of the Aztecs mighty empire had built so long ago. Spanish Inquisition The Inquisition was a religious movement to find and give punishment to heretics . The word inquisition comes from the word inquisitio, or inquest. The word inquisitio refers to the legal process that named the tribunals. It involved finding and interrogating suspects of crimes under oath to tell the truth. Some would condemn themselves. This method of finding heretics worked very well with the Waldensians and the Cathars. In France, the Templars were persecuted by the Inquisitors. In the year 392 A.D. the Roman Emperor Thodosius I outlawed every religion that was not Christian or Jewish. After he declared that, heresy became not only a religious offense, but also a civil one. Heretics began revolting quite frequently in the eleven and twelve hundreds, so the Church took over the job of finding and punishing heretics. In 1231, a special court was created by Pope Gregory IV to demand that all heretics become Christians. The Congregation of the Holy Office took control of the Inquisiti on in 1542. The judges for the Inquisition were almost all Dominican and Franciscan friars. The Inquisition took place mostly in Germany, France, Italy, and Spain. It did take place in other countries, but not as commonly. The investigations were in secret and almost all of the inquisitors abused their powers. Most Inquisitors were Dominican monks, appointed by the head of the Inquisition. Inquisitors and judges of the Inquisition could be compared to the prosecutors and judges of todays courts, to use an analogy. The inquisitor-general would appoint tribunals. Tribunals are groups of inquisitors. During an inquisition, two inquisitors, who traveled together, would call out to a town, city, or village for confessions. Only males under age fourteen and females under age twelve would not be considered as heretics. Questions would be asked of those accused in the local language. The answers were written down by scribes in Latin. The accused would never be defended by anyone, because th en the defender would be thought to be a heretic. The accused ones would not even know who had accused them. Judgments were given on Sundays, in a sermon. Punishment could range from death to paying a fine. Usually heretics were killed. The Inquisition in England was strengthened when the Catholic Reformation, also known as the Counter-Reformation was started. It was to prevent more conversion the Protestantism and to clean up the church. The sale of indulgences was no longer permitted. It was completely done away with. Fear of the Inquisition was also used to discourage becoming Protestant and abandoning Catholicism, for fear of being tried as a heretic. In the fifteen hundreds, the Inquisition was used by the Catholic church against Protestants. Also from the Counter-Reformation came the Jesuits, or the Society of Jesus, which was a group of powerful missionaries. During the Spanish Inquisition alone, from 1478 to 1834, thousands of people were tortured and killed. The person resp onsible for the death of over two thousand Spaniards was Tomas de Torquemanda. He was the leader of the Spanish Inquisition for fifteen years, from 1483 to 1498. He created the rules and precedents of inquisitorial procedure. He formed branches of the Inquisition in many major cities. When the Spanish Inquisition got out of hand, the Church tried to stop it but they could not halt it. The Spanish Inquisition ran its reign of terror from 1478 to 1834. It was said by Mark in Mark 4:22 that Jesus said, For there is nothing to be hid, except to be made manifest, nor is anything secret, except to come to light. The death of all those innocents was something that the Church had tried to hide. They would be imprisoned for days, months, even years, after one hearing, some to finally be tortured to death. The prisoners would have moldy food and stale water, along with cockroaches and other vermin, to keep them company in the dark. As mentioned earlier, suspected heretics were interrogated. T he term should be tortured, in innumerable cases. The inquisitors tortured prisoners to coerce them to confess. There were many ways that heretics would be tortured. Many were very gruesome. Torture has been used by many societies, in all times and places, even now. One method of torture was the use of pear-shaped devices that were forced into the mouth, anus, or vagina and then expanded, by way of mechanical devices, to thereby expand the body cavity. This would irreparably damage the tissues, because each pair had points on it. Almost everyone would die after having this done to them. One other way of persuading heretics to confess was Squassation. This was through use of the Strappardo. This was done by tying the victims hands behind their back and lifting them into the air by their wrists, while having heavy weights attached to their ankles or testicles. Then, they would be dropped almost to the ground and jerked to a stop. This would often dislocate the arms and cause much dama ge to the body part of which the weights were attached. People would be mock-crucified also, by being nailed to a door in the manner of crucifixion. The door would then be swung back and forth or slammed shut quickly. Some heretics were given the water torture, which consisted of forcing the person to drink water through a funnel until they died or confessed. Heretics were also be burned to death on stakes. Some were killed by being put in an oven and being roasted. If suspected heretics would not confess to heresy, then they would often be burned at the stake. In 1224, Frederick II made it a law that heretics must die by fire. One of the worst times in the Inquisition was in the sixteen hundreds. During that period, anything bad that happened could be blamed on witches. Neighbors would accuse each other of being witches over soured milk, lice, and any other minor problem that would occur. If a person said that they didnt believe in witches or demons, then they would be accused of b eing a witch or a heretic. Torture has been proven to be an ineffective method of getting the truth out of someone. A person in great pain might admit to anything, even if innocent. One Templar who had been tortured said, Under such torture, I would have confessed to killing God. Guilds Guilds were created in the Middle Ages and were groups of people with a common interest in a certain trade. There were many different types of guilds varying from religious and social guilds to crafts and carpentry guilds. The main purposes of these guilds were to prevent individual businesses from controlling all of the business of a certain trade. This proved profitable for the smaller businesses. Individuals who refused to join the guild of their profession were forced to leave the town. Guilds also had their own specific coat of arms and badges for members. Craft guilds, comprised of bakers, goldsmiths, tailors, weavers, boatmen, and other craft workers, created rules to protect members of the guilds. Perhaps the most important of the above guilds were those of the boatmen, which were in the coastal port cities. The merchants guilds created rules that set a standard on prices of their products. The members could not sell discounted items to people who were not members of the guil d. They also set standards on the quality of their goods and agreed on wages for their workers. To become part of a guild, workers went through an initiation ceremony and other rites. These rites were known as collegia. Being a member of a guild had some advantages. Along with a membership, the workers received assistance from the guild when it was needed. The guild helped members with charity, funeral ceremonies, prayers for the dead, and provided other services for the members in their times of need. The guilds built halls and market places and helped with church and town projects. all of their crafts and creations were of great quality. If a member of the guild made an item of poor quality he was punished with fines. If he continued to make the crafts with the same quality he would be expelled from the guild. The craft workers who became very successful in their trade and who owned their own shops became the masters of the guild. Craft workers who did not fully master their trade , or did not run their own shops were the journeymen. The journeymen worked in the shops of the masters everyday and received pay from them. Young men who were learning certain trades became known as apprentices and received housing and meals from their master. After about two to seven years, an apprentice could become a journeyman. Journeymen who wanted to become masters had to show evidence of great skill. He also had to pass an examination or make a product in his craft. The product would then be judged by the other masters belonging to his guild. If the product was considered a masterpiece, the journeyman would become a master. Because it soon became more and more difficult for people to become masters, journeymen soon created their own associations. They separated from their masters because their needs were not being met and this angered the masters. The masters tried to fight back by securing the passage of laws prohibiting them. They were defeated most of the time by the guil ds, its members and officials in the town. Merchants and craftsmen had great honor in their trade. This caused them to make their products with nothing but the best and because of their quality crafts, they took in great amounts of money. If the lord of the town was in need of money, he would made the merchants and craftsmen feel obligated to donate their money by making them feel guilty and selfish. Many times, merchants were robbed on their journeys and within the towns they sold their items. Sometimes merchants were falsely accused of owing other merchants and people money. If he did not belong to a guild, it was his word against theirs. If he did belong to a guild, the members supported him. Because of the danger on the merchants journey, caravans, or groups of merchants which traveled together, soon developed. Cities developed around areas which contained items or food of value and where it was convenient for merchants to carry to and then sell their items. Guild halls were bui lt as a meeting house for medieval craft and trade guilds to meet. The guild hall in London, known as the Council Hall, is famous for its great hall and crypt. Other countries, such as Germany, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, have excellent examples of Guild halls. The Lord Mayor of Londons banquet is held annually at the Guild hall in London. Because guilds became so popular and large, they became powerful in the government of the towns. When guilds needed permission to do something from their lord, they had to have the lord write his promise down and then it would be locked up safely in a strong chest in their Guild hall. This promise was called a charter. Guilds continued to increase their power by asking the lord for charters and were soon able to run a small portion of the town. They asked for a charter to allow them to appoint men to govern the town rather than the lords bailiff. Usually in return for this allowance, the guild had to pay a fixed rent each year. When they were allowed this, the guild was in charge of most of the town. As if the guilds were not complex and powerful enough, they decided to create associations of guilds, which controlled common foreign markets. Some examples of these associations are the League of the Flemish cities, concerned with the English wool trade. The association of North German cities, known as the Hanseatic League, controlled trades on the Baltic and North Seas. By the 1300s, guilds began to lose their protection and democratic sides. Guild membership began to pass down through the generations from father to son. This made it more difficult for new members to join the guilds. The increase of capitalistic industry was responsi